Human Beings Making Sense of Things Essay

Human Beings Make Sense of Things

In the early-1900s, Edmund Husserl sought to provide psychology with a truly scientific basis, not by copying the physical sciences but through the description of conscious experiences. This would be a truly humanistic psychology, grounded in human life and experience rather than materialistic and mechanistic theories like functionalism and behaviorism. Karl Jaspers called for a psychology that would describe phenomena such as “hallucinations, delusions, dreams, expressions, motor activity, and gestures” for the “person as a whole” (Churchill and Wertz, 2001, p. 247). This holistic or Gestalt psychology is dedicated to the search for the authentic self, and to heal the “hollow’ men and women of our time who have lost touch with themselves” (Churchill and Wertz, p. 248). Intentionality is one of the key assumptions of phenomenological psychology in which “experience must be grasped holistically and a relationship in which the subject relates to the object through its meaning” (Churchill and Wertz, p. 249). For example, water is a drink to a thirsty person, but has another meaning for someone about to go swimming or wash the dishes, so consciousness is never separate from an object or thing. Thinking, feeling, remembering, imagining and hoping are all intentional experiences, and phenomenology insists that subject and object are always connected, and that the nature of existence is monism rather than dualism.

Phenomenologists criticized depth psychology and its Cartesian dualism, which has existed for centuries while the world has become worse. James Hillman called for a new type of psychology based on Platonic Idealism, centered on a belief in the World Soul or Anima Mundi that rejected the Enlightenment and its “mechanistic explanations of nature” (Sipiora, 2000, p. 64). Anima Mundi is “that particular soul spark, that seminal image, which refers itself through each thing inn its visible form,” like a Jungian archetype or the collective unconscious (Sipiora, 2000, p. 65). Phenomenology did not go far enough in recognizing the existence of the soul or the imagination, in which all reality is symbolic and metaphorical. This has much in common with Heidegger’s hermeneutic psychology, whose purpose is to uncover the hidden meaning of existence or Being. Meaning come from the imagination or a “fantasy-image,” and the Dasein is a world where human beings orient themselves, encounter others and deal with things (Sipiora, 200, p. 69). Rollo May found that there were “serious gaps” in modern psychology and psychiatry, and that patients were seen as mere “projections” of our own theories” (May, 1958. p. 1). He was skeptical of Freudian constructs like the libido and censor, and remarked that “the unconscious ideas of the patient are more than not the conscious ideas of the therapist” (May, p. 3).

In 1955, Heidegger argued that the increase in thoughtlessness was one of the symptoms of modern life, and that it was actually a deliberate escape from thought. Only calculative thinking was prospering, along with the increased use of machines and computers, and “calculative thinking is not meditative thinking, not thinking which contemplates the meaning which reigns in everything that is” (Heidegger, 1955, p. 89). Humans are thinking and meditating beings, which should not be regarded as mystical mumbo-jumbo but a statement about the identity of authentic persons. Nor was meditative thinking encouraged by the flood of words and images from movies, television, radio and magazines, all the “modern techniques of communication” that “stimulate, assail, and drive man” (Heidegger, 1955, p. 90). These are superficial and reflect a loss of rootedness in modern, urban society, where the masses no longer give any thought to the heavens and the spirit, but only “planning and calculationorganization and automation” (Heidegger, 1955, p. 90). Even nuclear energy promised to lead to a happier human life in the atomic age, of which Heidegger was highly skeptical. Humanity had lost the ability to think in ways that had “enabled modern technology to discover and set free new energies in nature,” and instead regarded the earth as a big gas station and a thing to be exploited (Heidegger, 1955, p. 91). This was the final result of the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution of the 17th and 18th Centuries that reduced the earth to a thing, and indeed the entire universe, given that humans would soon be moving into space. Because of this type of thinking, “technological advance with move faster and can never be stopped,” but this machine will no longer be under human control (Heidegger, 1955, p. 92). Meditative thinking, on the other hand, had become so alien and unfamiliar that it required that “we engagewith what at first sight does not go together at all” (Heidegger, 1955, p. 93). Humanity needed to develop a real and inner core that was not enslaved to technical devices, so it would not be dominated by machines. Meditative thinking also required a search for hidden meanings in the world of technology and machines, and a “releasement toward things and openness to the mystery,” so that humanity could dwell in the world in a new way (Heidegger, 1955, p. 94). If this did not happen, then calculative thinking would eventually become the only type of thinking.

Existentialist psychotherapy was a protest against the suppositions and assumptions of both Freudians and behaviorists. In the United States, psychology has always been most successful in “behavioristic, clinical, and applied areas,” but almost all of its theoretical foundations had come from Europe (May, p. 7). American psychology was based on the pragmatism and empiricism of John Locke, as opposed to the Continental tradition of Kant and Leibnitz, which had a stronger theoretical and philosophical basis. In short the U.S. was always a “nation of practitioners” and therefore had great difficulty comprehending existentialism. It seemed too much like a bohemian philosophy of Left Bank cafes in Paris, combined with Germanic nihilism and irrationalism, and “a philosophy od despair advocating suicide.” Jean Paul Sartre represented existentialism for most Americans, even though he was only “a nihilistic, subjective extreme.” In its mainstream form, however, existentialism was attempting to follow in the tradition of Socrates and many other philosophers who unified both subject and object and understood human beings in their social, historical and cultural contexts (May, p. 9). Individual behavior can be “understood only in the context of the structure of the existence of the person we are dealing with” (May, p. 37). In Old English, the terms knowing and loving were closely related, and in existential psychotherapy there is “at least a readiness to love the other person, broadly speaking, if one is to be able to understand him” (May, p. 39).

Existentialism is not simply mysticism or idealism, but the attempt to recognize of the non-rational, non-mathematical aspects of human existence. In the modern West, the person has been reduced to an “abstraction” that survives in a state of loneliness and isolation. In Heidegger’s Dasein (“being-there) therapy, human persons are made conscience of their own existence but also of death and the fact that they are in a dialectal relationship with “non-being, death” (May, p. 42). This experience is the basis for treatment, which always involves a sense of relatedness to the world. Dasein therapy is not simply transference to the therapist nor is it the “introjection of social and ethical norms” or “rigid moralism” (May. p. 45). On the contrary, the heart of existentialist psychology is developing a personal sense of authenticity and integrity, and making choices on this basis. These should not be the choices or others or of the superego, and self-esteem should not rest on validation from the outside. Even Freud regarded the ego as “a relatively weak, shadowy, passive, and derived agent,” under the control of the Id, superego and external world (May, p. 46). Modern ideologies like fascism and communism also regarded the individual are passive and under the control of external forces. Existentialists and phenomenologists maintained that the sense of being included both the conscious and unconscious, and their relations with the external world. Sense of being means “my capacity to see myself as a being in the world” and this can be diminished by “conformist tendencies” (May, p. 47). It also means awareness of death on non-being as an inevitability, but the central existential question is how the person “relates to the fact of death,” which indeed is also essential in giving meaning to life (May, p. 49).

Anxiety is also a fundamental aspect of being in the modern world, not only for psychotics and neurotics but as a normal aspect of life. In fact, the English world anxiety is not adequate to convey the meaning of the German word Angst, which could also be translated as existential dread, terror or a threat to existence. Indeed, the entire 20th Century could be described as an era of chronic Angst. Guilt is also an “ontological characteristic of human existence,” caused by living an inauthentic life and not making genuine choices but simply conforming to society. Of this, the patient is guilty, not in the trivial sense of merely having feelings of guilt, but for being separated from others and nature. Such alienation from the world and from nature is universal in modern society (May, p 54). May thought that the schizoid personality best typified the modern age of being “detached, unrelated, lacking in affect, tending toward depersonalization, and covering upproblems by means of intellectualization and technical formulations” (May, p. 56).

Individuals are not merely abnormal but isolated and alienated from society, with a sense of disconnectedness of the type portrayed in film noir. Ever since the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, the Western world has had a “passion to gain power over nature” rather than be part of it (May, p. 57). For the existentialist psychotherapist, “the problem is not at all that these patents have endured impoverished pasts, it is rather that cannot or do not connect themselves to the present and future,” and the past seems dead to them because they believe they have no future (May, p. 70). In existentialist therapy, the main question is never “How are you?” But “Where are you?,” in the sense of being either detached or present, aware or running away from problems, lifeless or experiencing “existence as real” (May, p. 85).

Description and reflection are vital tools for existential psychology, no matter whether for experiences in the past, present or future. Yet this should not be done with overlays, theories and generalizations from the therapist, but rather inductively in which the patients are free to describe their own experiences, verbally and in writing. These experiences may be individual, general or universal, and this requires “qualitative comparisons of different individual cases, real and imagined” (Churchill and Wertz, p. 254). Only at the end of the process of collecting the descriptions does the researcher or therapist offer a psychological explanation, starting with informal thoughts and reflections. For example, researchers in Pittsburgh conducted interviews with 50 crime victims and ask them to describe what happened to them, reporting as many details as they could remember. Then they isolated each theme or moment in these experiences, generalizing about the meanings that the participants ascribed to them and recurrent themes or meanings in each of the interviews. At the end, the researchers realized that the victims had categorized their experiences into five stages” before victimization; the actual experience of victimization; struggle with the perpetrator; reliving the experience; and post-victimization. All of them felt a “loss of agency” and an absence of community, as well (Churchill and Wertz, pp. 255-57).

Phenomenology Part 2 The Worldly Character of Human Existence

For Heidegger, existence in the world depends on context, culture and history, whether participation in tribal rituals, sports or work. Human life is not split into subject-object relationships but is “being-in-the-world” (Sipiora, 2000, p. 69). For J.H. van den Berg, the purpose of existential psychology is to describe the world and its meaning. He defined phenomenology as psychotherapy for a “destitute” time, and also as “cultural therapeutics” or “Cosmotherapy,” in contrast to the “calculating rationality” that has become the norm in Western society in which life lacks both morality and meaning (Sipiora, 2008, p. 426). For van den Berg and other phenomenologists, existential psychology must offer ideals and spirituality, and be focused not only on individuals and their personal problems, but on the modern, dehumanized industrial society that offers no meaning to life beyond “mundane functioning” (Sipiora, 2008, p. 427). This is what Heidegger meant when he said that the rationalism of the modern, technological world had left humanity with a feeling of homelessness and meaninglessness. Rollo May also asserted that the world “is the structure of meaningful relationships in which a person existed” and “in the design of which he participates,” and van den Berg agreed that human existence could only be understood by studying the world and not only the isolated, alienated self (Sipiora, 2008, p. 429).

As Heidegger explained it, the old German world bauen had lost its true meaning in modern times, and no longer meant to dwell in a place but simply to build things. In the modern world, factories, apartments, bridges and power plants were being built all the time, but none of these were real dwellings or homes. Modern man has no home, and he inhabits structures but “does not dwell in them,” and dwelling is now just another activity performed “alongside many other activities” (Heidegger, 1971, 145). This has nothing to do with humanity, however, which means to “be on the earth as a mortal,” to dwell there and to cherish and cultivate it, and to stay in one place with a feeling of security (Heidegger, 1971, p. 149). Modern industrial society only exploits the earth and wears it out, and human beings now just treat it as a thing, when in fact they are part of it. Earth is a home, and people dwell on it with each other, and as Heidegger pointed out, the ancient German word for a tribal assembly was a Thing (Ding). Real building is impossible unless human beings also learn how to dwell again, although that does not necessarily mean reversion to living on small farms and engaging in subsistence agriculture. Nevertheless, dwelling “is the basic character of Being in keeping with which mortals exist” (Heidegger, 1971, p. 160). Thinking is also a part of building and dwelling, which means that there is a real shortage of dwellings in the modern world — a housing shortage. This is in fact the greatest problem in contemporary society, even more so than the plight of the poor and the industrial workers, but “as soon as man gives thought to his homelessness, it is a misery no longer” (Heidegger, 1971, p. 161).

According to Rollo May, existential psychotherapy had to consider history, culture, philosophy and literature in its attempts to explain the “anxiety and conflicts of contemporary man” (May, p. 6). Kierkegaard, Nietzsche and other modern philosopher had understood that there was a “growing split between truth and rationality in Western culture” in the 19th Century, and that it suffered from the “delusion that reality can be comprehended in an abstracted, detached way” (May, p. 12). For this reason, Western society had become repressed and dehumanized. In the 20th Century, Heidegger, Jaspers, Paul Tillich, Miguel Unamuno, Franz Kafka, Albert Camus and Jose Ortega y Gasset all portrayed “the despairing, dehumanized situation in modern culture” (May, p. 15). Kierkegaard also foretold the new physics of Albert Einstein and Werner Heisenberg in which the object and observer both disappeared and were relativized (May, p. 22). In his painting Guernica, Pablo Picasso showed “the atomistic, fragmented condition of European society” in the 1930s, and both Freudianism and existentialism were crisis philosophies born out of the world wars and Great Depression, as well as the rise of totalitarian police states.

Existentialism in particular was the philosophy of a transitional era, such as the break between feudalism and modernity during the Renaissance, “when one age is dying and the new era was not yet born” (May, p. 15). Freud recognized the despair and depression of modern civilization, where the “soul has gone stale,” as Nietzsche put it (May, p. 17). In the 19th and 20th Centuries, Western civilization underwent an “emotional, psychological, and spiritual disintegration,” in which split personalities like Jekyll and Hyde became common. Victorian society concentrated on the physical and material aspects of industrialization while repressing real emotions and sexuality, and gradually turned human beings into machines. Science and philosophy also became fragmented and compartmentalized with no unifying principles, while psychology abandoned any “clear and consistent idea of man” (May, p. 19). When World War I began in 1914, this old order was already in a state of collapse, and Freud came to realize that society itself was also sick and neurotic, not only individuals. Prophetically, he described the 1920s and 1930s as a period of “atomic chaos” that led to the rise of the totalitarian state (May, p. 20).

In phenomenology history, culture and society are not objects outside the individual, but are always linked to human beings who read meanings into them. Culture, physical objects, nature, other persons, and institutions are “inextricably bound up with all the others.” All human beings experience the world in “meaningful relevance” to their own projects, goals, interests and desires (Churchill and Wertz. P. 250). Heidegger regarded the true nature of the world as mythical and Four-fold, consisting of earth, heaven, mortals and gods, with mystical visions that occur “in things and the places of their crossing in the world” (Sipiora, 2000, p. 70). Myth (Mythos) “permits thought about that which appears, that which becomes present,” and therefore Being is a myth as well, but one that is beyond human comprehension and explanation (Sipiora, 2000, p. 71).

This world is also timeless, and is continually called into existence, while phenomenological psychology provides insight into the myths, poems and fantasy-images that describe it, like the Four-fold. An earthen jug, for example, “holds the wine yielded from the grapes, which in turn have been grown from the soil and nurtured by the sun and rain from the heavens.” Mortals enjoy the wine and honor the gods by pouring libations, meaning that all Four are present even in a simple jug. From this mythical-poetic perspective, the jug is not simply a thing or an object, but an “image of the Fourfold and an “Event of the world” (Sipiora, 2000, p. 73). In contrast to the earth, the heavens are the place of spiritual freedom and transcendence, in which “things can reach beyond themselves a run their cycles of growth and decay,” and while the gods live in the heavens they also appear on earth and are part of the world and humanity (Sipiora, 2000, p. 75). Unlike humans, however, they are immortal and have no fear of death or non-Being. Of course, for Heidegger death is a myth as well, since there is no dualistic separation between the physical and spiritual, or the mortal and immortal, but only Oneness.

Metabletics is a type of historical phenomenology that rejects the concepts of progress or evolution in social history, or the assumption that the present is always an improved version of the part. Although human beings find themselves in a given history and culture, which is a basic fact of existence, they also have the ability to transcend these. Heidegger made a distinction between Historiography (Historie) and History (Geschichte), with the former treating the past as a mere object to be described and analyzed, while the latter was part of the destiny of the human being and a “mystery whose unfolding is the heart of our worldly existing” (Sipiora, 2008, p. 432). Every historical epoch has its unique Dasein into which human beings are thrown, and this includes modern industrial society, although for Heidegger this was hardly an example of progress. As May put it, existentialism rejects all ideas of progress, providence, fatalism, predestination and determinism, including the Marxist version of historical materialism, in favor of a sense of personal transcendence over the past and present (May, p. 75). This does not mean a reversion to old-time religion, mysticism or other-worldliness, but imagination that can think outside present constraints as “the basis of human freedom” (May, p. 76). Even so, van den Berg agrees with Heidegger that meaning must be sought in the historical and cultural context, and metabletics must be a psychology of historical changes in human consciousness. Each era has its own set of “values, assumptions and customs, as well as physical objects” (Sipiora, 2008, p. 436).

Like Heidegger and all other existentialists, van den Berg found that modern, secular society had eliminated myth, poetry and spirituality in favor of a bland, arid secularism. All of these were repressed into the unconscious, and in fact present-day society is unconscious of the spiritual and the sacred which psychotherapy must make conscious again (Sipiora, 2008, p. 438). Essentially, existential psychotherapy cannot be effective without this awareness of how human consciousness has changed in the modern era since the 17th and 18th Centuries. Cartesian dualism, pragmatism and rationalism had demystified nature and reduced it to an object of a thing, while humans had also come to view themselves and other persons in the same way. This was the essence of modern, urban society, and its sense of despair, malaise, alienation and anxiety. Existence had become fragmented and disconnected, and human beings had lost and suppressed all sense of mystery and the sacred. Even so, the need for meaning still existed, and the goal of existential psychology was to assist each person in finding their own sense of meaning, rootedness and connectedness.

REFERENCE LIST

Churchill, S. And Wertz, F. (2001) “An Introduction to Phenomenological Research in psychology: Historical, Conceptual, and Methodological Foundations,” in K.J. Schneider, J .F .T. Bugental, & J.F. Pierson (Eds.) The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading Edges in Theory, Research, and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 247-62.

May, R. (1958). “The Origins and Significance of the Existential Movement in Psychology” and “Contributions of Existential Psychotherapy” in R. May, E. Angel and H. Ellenberger (Eds.), Existence. New York: Basic Books, pp. 3-36; 37-91.

Heidegger, M. (1971).” Building, Dwelling, Thinking,” and “The Thing” in Poetry, Language, Thought. (A. Hofstadter, Trans.). New York: Harper and Row, pp. 145-61; 165-86.

Heidegger, M. (1955, 2003).”Memorial Address,” in Stassen, M. (Ed). Martin Heidegger: Philosophical and Political Writings. Continuum International Publishing Group, pp. 87-96.

http://books.google.com/books?id=nBJHdbdTK3EC&pg=PA87&dq=heidegger+memorial+address&hl=en&ei=BBPLTZiCLMG1tgf02Nz-Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

Sipiora, M. (2008),” Obligations beyond Competency: Metabletics as a Conscientious Psychology.” Janus Head Winter/Spring Issue 2008, 10.2.

http://www.janushead.org/10-2/Sipiora.pdf

Sipiora, M. (2000). “The Anima Mundi and the Fourfold: Hillman and Heidegger on the “Ideal” of the World,” in R. Brooke (Ed.), Pathways into the Jungian World: Phenomenology and Analytical Psychology. New York: Routledge, pp. 67-83.

Sipiora, M. (1991). “Heidegger and Epideictic Discourse: The Rhetorical Performance of Meditative Thinking.” Philosophy Today, Vol. 4, pp. 239-253.

van den Berg, J.H. (1972). A Different Existence: Principles of Phenomenological Psychopathology. Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press.

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