Biological Approach to Personality Psychology

Theoretical Perspective of the Biological Approach to Personality Psychology

Personality is defined as a person’s exceptional deviation on the general evolutionary design for human temperament. A personality trait refers to a durable disposition to act in a certain manner in different situations. Personality traits represent some of the most significant sets of individual disparities in organizations. It is the comparatively set of psychological characteristics that differentiates one person from another. People should strive to comprehend fundamental personality attributes and the manner in which they influence a person’s behavior (Griffin 2007).Most perspectives to personality presuppose that some traits are more fundamental compared to others. This concept underlie that a small number of basic personality traits determine other, more superficial traits. With respect to the biological approach to personality, personality traits are determined by human genetic inheritance, behavioral tendencies that develop from evolutionary history and human conduct that generate through intricate biological system, such as neurotransmitters and hormones. Although the biological perspective to personality does not highlight a consistent theoretical approach, it entails a collection of factors that links personality to biology, highlight human behavior and personality origin in evolutionary evidence and theory.

The Brain and Personality

The architecture of the brain is significant in understanding personality. The brain is a modular dispensed, self-organizing system of neural networks. Emotional, behavioral and cognitive functioning are mediated through sequential and parallel processing blueprints of networks that originate in divergent structures and dispensed throughout the brain (Carducci, 2009). Within specific sub-cortical and cortical regions, functional capacities are mapped on the brain in a modular dispensed manner. In studying personality and the brain, the interrelations amid three aspects: psychological abilities, the social environment and biological mechanisms are paramount (Carducci, 2009). As a result, an understanding personality development and the brain systems calls for an extensive comprehension of how these systems interact over time. The brain comprises of populations of cells and billion neurons are devoted to the activity of transmitting information between the periphery and different brain structures. The multiple neural pathways offer the flexibility and complexity of behavior.

Neurophysiology and brain anatomy are crucial to personality. The measurement of the activities of the brain through comparatively old methods such as EEG (Electroencephalography), latest methods such as MEG (Magnetoencephalography), TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation), PET (Positron Emission Tomography), and other major techniques help in enhancing the knowledge concerning the brain (Carducci, 2009). PET and FMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scanners are used to offer data summaries that determine the regions of the brain that are active during different emotional reactions and mental activities. These techniques are applied to compare brain activities in persons with divergent personality traits.

The Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS)

The Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) is the foundation of the introversion and extraversion, and it originates from the central portions of medulla, diencephalon and midbrain. According to Carducci (2009), ARAS is a collection of nerve fibers situated at the bottom of the lower part of the brain and the spinal cord, and it activates the entire brain. The ARAS excites the cerebral cortex cells and reduces incoming stimuli from other sources .ARAS facilitates regulation of arousal level in the brain to allow an individual to operate most efficiently, and it keeps the brain alert. The arousal of the brain increases when a person is excited (Carducci, 2009). However, the brain may direct the ARAS to lower the arousal level under given conditions such as during bedtime. As a result, ARAS can either raise or lower the arousal level depending on the feedback it gets from the brain.

Amygdala

The amygdala is one unit within a system, which is committed to appraising emotion stimuli. The damage to amygdale impairs the judgment of socially crucial facially significant facial expression. PET studies of normal subjects have affirmed the involvement of amygdala in emotional perception. PET Studies show that left amygdala shows more activation when images of fearful faces are shown while the right amygdala is sensitive to happy faces (Andrewes 2001). . People with double-sided damage to amygdala cannot recognize fearful facial expressions although they have no problem recognizing angry facial expressions. The most apparent support for the amygdala as a personality agent is realized from animal research that shows a lesion to the central amygdala leads to tameness, and that a chemical stimulation of the same region leads to behavioral signs of aggression and fear. This type of result is applicable to humans.

Andrewes (2001) highlights analysis of psychosurgery study series that have indicated a reduction in aggression and behavioral disorder in people who have undergone amygdatolomy and amygdalectomy (Andrewes 2001). These patients become more obedient, controllable and calm. In this regard, amygdala plays a crucial role in formulating emotional reaction. When the environment appears to produce imminent dangers, amygdala reacts through making increased heartbeats and increased blood pressure. Attributed linked to amygdala operation include sociability, sexuality, chronic anxiety and fearfulness. Moreover, studies show that the amygdala is receptive to kindling and over-activation of amygdala neurons leads to heightened emotional reactions such as anger, nervousness, panic and paranoia.

The Frontal Lobes And The Neocortex

According to Christos (2003), most of the understanding regarding what different brain parts do is realized from the examination of people who have had some portion of their brain surgically removed because of brain tumor or accident or to manage epilepsy. Scientists have realized that personality and people’s ability to plan are located in the frontal lobes. This is because people who have had a huge part of their frontal lobes removed through methods, such as prefrontal lobotomies become zombies following the surgery, devoid of any personality (Christos, 2003). The frontal lobes are part of the neocortex, and the neocortex is the major engine of cognition and self-awareness. The neocortex is portioned into regions based on their functions, motor, association and sensory areas. Each sensory area is situated in diverse regions within the cortex.

Approximately 75% of the neocortex can be grouped as motor or sensory area. This percentage is used in supporting the highest cognitive functions in humans such as theoretical reasoning foresight and language (Christos, 2003). Neocortex is further divided into geographical regions that are further portioned into lobes, parietal, occipital, frontal and temporal. The frontal lobes that form the half of neocortex are found in the front of the brain. Frontal lobes specialize in language functions, personality traits executive control, motor activity and emotionality. Powerful actions in this area happen to persons prone to negative emotions as well as to consistently cooperative people as indicated in FMRI studies (Christos, 2003).

The Anterior Cingulate

The anterior cingulate is the foremost cortical goal for dopaminergic protrusions from the ventral tegmental area. The ventral anterior cingulate is linked to personality traits and it allows people to favor positive personality traits as more descriptive than negative personality traits (Carducci, 2009). The ventral anterior cingulate is linked to decisions of positive personality traits particularly those that are self-descriptive. Studies indicate that ventral anterior cingulate is linked with imagining prospective constructive occurrences compared to future unconstructive events to people who are naturally affirmative (Carducci, 2009). The anterior attentional system gets massive inputs from emotion-linked frontal and limbic circuits thereby offering a means for enhanced attention control. Anxiety-linked impacts on the anterior system as highlighted through a PET study demonstrate activation of the left anterior cingulate cortex. A recent PET study indicates that anterior cingulate is related to downbeat trait anxiety (Carducci, 2009).

Lessons Of Psychosurgery and Brain Systems

The fact that personalities traits are partially caused by genetic aspects imply that there must be a biological impact on attributes encoded within an individual’s DNA. The impact of genotype on the brain structure and operation is likely to be influenced through interaction with the setting. Secondly, there is striking evidence for radical personality shift due to brain damage. Damage to cerebral cortex’s frontal lobes is notorious for disruption of personality; an individual may become impulsive, aggressive or unstable (Carducci, 2009). Thirdly, there is some proof that attributes correlate with biological indicators of brain functioning such as reactions collected from electroencephalographic and FMRI studies (Carducci, 2009).Correlations between attribute parameters and the brain prompt the need for development of psychobiological theories of personality attributes. Such theories should be able to determine how individual disparities in the specific brain systems functioning influence permanent individual disparities in behavior.

Personality is linked to a mass of divergent brain structures, ranging from primordial systems controlling alertness and wakefulness to systems for higher cognitive functions such as thought and language. To treat personality disorder, psychosurgery is involved and it involves disabling brain regions (Matthews & Whiteman, 2009). Current psychosurgical methods focus on the pathways amid the frontal cortex and the limbic system. Psychosurgery comprises of the surgical ablation or disentanglement of brain tissue to correct abnormal affective and cognitive mental states triggered by psychiatric disorders. Psychosurgery alters dysfunctional brain pathways and circuits, and the process has been refined to a more effectual and safer procedure.

Biochemistry and Personality

The brain control biological functions while its biochemistry produces behavioral and mental characteristics. An individual nature is the vehicle by which one expresses his/her values and emotions to others (Coon & Mitterer, 2008). The human brain processes the four major biochemicals in different manner, and this mixture determines ones nature and personality. The chemical behavioral foundations comprise of hormones and neurotransmitters, which play a major role in interaction and nervous system’s cells stimulation.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are efficiently the messengers of the brain and they hold information from one brain cell to another. Neurons are sensitive to various types of neurotransmitters and have receptors. Neurons that are sensitive to certain neurotransmitters tend to cluster together forming circuits in the brain that assist the spread of information (Coon & Mitterer, 2008). Neurotransmitters; norepinephrine and epinerphrine, are crucial portion of the flight reaction to dangerous situations. The brain norepinephrine is linked to aggressive tendencies in human and monkeys.

Dopamine on the other hand, assists in controlling the reward of the brain and happiness regions. It regulates emotional reactions and movements besides enabling human beings to view rewards, and is it the foundation of extraversion (Matthews & Whiteman, 2009). Moreover, dopamine is a crucial foundation of BAS (Behavioral Activation System) and BIS (behavioral inhibition system) based in the frontal lobes.

5-hydroxtytryptamine or serotonin alleviates anxiety and depression besides subduing hunger. Reduced levels of serotonin because intermediate personality disorder and it is involved in sensory perception, sleep and body temperatures regulation with its insufficiency implicated in mental illness. Serotonin controls emotions and some antidepressants are created to augment its dominance in the brain. Serotonin lessens neurotic overreactions to unconstructive situations when it is raised through (SSRI) selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (Matthews & Whiteman, 2009). Nevertheless, efforts to enhance personality-pertinent brain operation through cosmetic psychopharmacology can lead to adverse effects.

Hormones

Hormones are engaged in a broad variety of personality and behavioral traits. Testosterone, may account in some major sections for the personality disparities between women and men, and the shifts in conduct that takes place as an age function. Testosterone hormone is linked to surgency, sociability, energy, sensation seeking, rebelliousness, aggressiveness and activity.

Cortisone is one of the final products of hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical (HYPAC) stress system and is related to stress reactivity in anxiety and depressive disorders. The HYPAC system is highly reactive in a strain of rats depicting nonexploratory, nonaggressive, fearful traits that are characteristic of human sensation seekers (Matthews & Whiteman, 2009).In animals, biological attributes underlying behavior are general across a broad spectrum of attributes like bold exploration and fear.

The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits

Numerous psychologists have taken on challenge to determine the fundamental traits that construct the core of personality. For instance, Raymond Cattell applied the statistical process of factor analysis to reduce a list of one hundred and seventy one personality traits complied by Allport Gordon (1937) to sixteen fundamental personality dimensions. In the factor analysis, relationships among several variables are evaluated to determine closely linked clusters of variables. In factor analysis of personality traits, the hidden aspects are viewed as elementary, higher-order traits that determine less elemental, more detailed traits. Based on his factor analysis, Cattell confirmed that a person’s personality could be described fully through measuring sixteen traits, which are discussed in the Five-Factor Model of personality traits. The Bid Five personality model quantifies comparatively different personality traits including:

The tendency to experience negative emotions-Neuroticism

The tendency to be assertive to sociable, and to experience positive emotions-Extraversion

The tendency to be unconventional and imaginative-Openness

The tendency to be cooperative and trustworthy-Agreeableness

The tendency to be reliable and organized-Conscientiousness

Paul Costa and Robert McCrae utilized the factor analysis to arrive at simpler five-factor model of personality. They claimed that the vast majority of personality qualities derive from just five higher-order traits that are known as the Big Five: extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to experience. The Big Five traits haven was linked to divergent brain systems and chemicals (Coon & Mitterer, 2008). They also envisage how people will operate in different circumstances. For instance, individuals who score high in conscientiousness tend to perform well at their work place, perform well in school and rarely experience automobile accidents, and they live longer (Coon & Mitterer, 2008).

Agreeableness

Agreeableness refers to an individual’s aptitude to get along with others. Agreeableness makes some people to be cooperative, gentle, understanding, good nurtured and forgiving while dealing with others. However, some of these people become irritable, uncooperative, short-tempered, and antagonistic towards others (Griffin, 2009). According to Lloyd & Hammer (2012), people who score high in agreeableness tend to be trusting, sympathetic, modest, straightforward and cooperative. People who score at the conflicting end of this personality trait are portrayed as aggressive, antagonistic and suspicious. Agreeableness has its foundation on childhood nature and it enhances philanthropic or helping conduct in social interactions (Lloyd & Hammer, 2009). Agreeableness is linked to constructive perspectives to conflict resolutions thereby making agreeable persons less quarrelsome compared to others. According to Ashton (2012), agreeableness covaries with volume in areas that process information regarding the intentions and mental states of other people.

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness refers to the number of objectives a person focuses on (Weiten, 2008). People who focus on comparatively few goals at a given point are likely to be careful, systematic, thorough, self-disciplined, responsible and organized. According to Lloyd & Hammer (2009), conscientious persons tend to be disciplined, punctual and dependable. Conscientious is linked to being highly diligent in the workplace, and is highly linked to different occupational areas with considerable permanence. According to Ashton (2012), conscientiousness covaries with volume in lateral prefrontal cortex, an area involved in planning and the voluntary control of conduct.

Extraversion

According to Lloyd & Hammer (2009), people who score high in extraversion are portrayed as sociable, outgoing, optimistic, assertive, gregarious and friendly. Extraversion is also linked to other traits such as self-esteem and firefighting capacities among professional firefighters. Extraverts may need more stimulation to raise their arousal to maximum levels, which could offer explanations why they are drawn to more exciting actions including risk-taking adventures. According to Ashton (2012), extraversion covaries with the volume of medial orbitofrontal cortex, a brain area involved in process reward information.

Neuroticism

Nevid (2012) asserts people who are high on neuroticism, or emotional instability tends to be anxious, restless, moody, worrisome and tense. Those who are low on neuroticism tend to calm, stable, relaxed and even-tempered. Neuroticism is linked to low levels of life satisfaction and poorer psychological adjustment, besides poor health upshots such augmented danger to serious medical illness and reduced endurance. Lloyd & Hammer (2009) assert that people who score high in neuroticism are vulnerable, insecure, hostile, and self-conscious. Such people overreact more in response to stressors compared to other people. According to Ashton (2012), neuroticism covaries with volume of brain regions linked to threat, negative affect and punishment.

Openness to Experience

Openness is linked to flexibility, imaginativeness, curiosity, unconventional attitudes and artistic sensitivity. Lloyd & Hammer (2012) assert that openness fosters liberalism, and this trait is important in determining the political attitudes of people. People who are high on openness display less prejudice against minorities. According to Lloyd & Hammer (2012), the significance of openness to experience trait has been underestimated.

According to Matthews & Whiteman (2009), there is a reasonable degree of congruence between the five factor model and personality aspects from dissimilar schemes devised through different authors with divergent theoretical orientations. No matter what the actual qualities are named by different authors, they tend to considerably assess some or all qualities of the five-factor model (Matthews & Whiteman, 2009). The five-factor model has been powerful because it offers the consequential upshots that include individual well-being, harmful or beneficial community engagement and the quality of relationships with others. Matthews and Whiteman (2009 affirm that Costa and McCrae (1992) summarized the proof of the validity of the five factor model. They state the four means through which the five factors are fundamental. These means include:

That cross-sectional and longitudinal study have indicated five robust aspects to the permanent behavioral dispositions

That qualities linked to the five factors emerge from divergent personality systems and from natural language system

That the five factors are evident in divergent age, race, language and sex

That heritability studies shows some biological foundation for each of the five factors

The Big Five personality model offers a significant structure for identifying individual disparities in both childhood and adulthood, and can integrate the disposition traits that have emerged in several research lines. Extraversion is already apparent in infancy in form of positive emotions and extends to include positive activity and energy, sociability and assertiveness. Neuroticism appears in infancy in the form of irritability, sadness, and overreaction to negative circumstances while conscientiousness surfaces early in life in children’s disparities in self-regulation and self-control. Agreeableness appears in form of prosocial conduct and empathy in toddler years. Openness to experience appears later and is determined through sensory sensitivity. The Big Five traits are therefore related to divergent brain systems and chemicals.

Conclusion

The biological approach to studying personality looks for the organic foundation of individual disparities through physiology, genetics, and evolution and anatomy theory. Research on anatomy tries to determine brain structures that have a role in different personality traits. For instance, the functional magnetic resonance imaging has demonstrated that shy persons compared to bold people react to images of unfamiliar persons with bilateral amygdala activation. The biological approach offers a bridge between personality study and biology. While biological processes influences behavior, social environment and behaviors also influences biological process.

References

Andrewes, D. (2001). Neuropsychology: From theory to practice. New York: Psychology Press.

Ashton, Q. (2012). Advances in Nervous System Research and Application: 2011 Edition. New York: Scholarly Editions.

Carducci, B. (2009). The psychology of personality: Viewpoints, research and applications.

London: John Wiley & Sons.

Christos, G. (2003). Memory and dreams: The creative human mind. New York: Rutgers

Coon, D., & Mitterer, J. (2008). Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior with concept maps and review. London: Cengage Learning

Griffin, R. (2007). Fundamentals of management. London: Cengage Learning.

Lloyd, M., & Hammer, E. (2009). Psychology applied to modern life: Adjustment in the 21st

Century. London: Cengage Learning.

Matthews, G., Whiteman, M. (2009). Personality traits. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Nevid, J. (2008). Psychology: Concepts and applications. New York: Cengage Learning.

Weiten, W. (2008). Psychology: Themes and variations. London: Cengage Learning.

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